Making Compost Manure

What is compost? 

Compost is a mixture of organic matter, as from leaves and manure, that has decayed or has been digested by organisms, used to improve soil structure and provide nutrients. 

Benefits of Using Compost 

1. Improves the soil structure, porosity, and density, thus creating a better plant root environment. 

2. Increases infiltration and permeability of heavy soils, thus reducing erosion and runoff. 

3. Improves water holding capacity, thus reducing water loss and leaching in sandy soils. 

4. Supplies a variety of macro and micronutrients. (However amounts not known) 

5. May control or suppress certain soil-borne plant pathogens. 

6. Supplies significant quantities of organic matter. 

7. Improves cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soils and growing media, thus improving their ability to hold nutrients for plant use. 

8. Supplies beneficial micro-organisms to soils and growing media. 

9. Improves and stabilizes soil pH. 

WHAT YOU NEED: 

1. Green stuff (high in nitrogen) to activate the heat process in your compost. Perfect heat-generating materials include: young weeds (before they develop seeds); comfrey leaves; yarrow; chicken, rabbit or pigeon manure; grass cuttings; etc. Other green items that compost well include fruit and vegetables; fruit and vegetable scraps; coffee grounds and tea leaves (including tea bags - remove the staple if you wish); vegetable plant remains; plants. 

2. Brown stuff (high in carbon) to serve as the "fiber" for your compost. Brown stuff includes fall (autumn) leaves; dead plants and weeds (avoid weeds with seed); sawdust straw; old flowers (including dried floral displays, minus plastic/foam attachments); and hay. 

3. 'Other items that can be composted but you may not have thought of before: paper towels; paper bags; cotton clothing (torn up); egg shells; hair (human, dog, cat etc.) Use all these items in moderation. 

4. Air. It is possible to compost without air (anaerobically), but the process employs different bacteria and an anaerobic compost pile will take on a sour smell like vinegar. It may also attract flies or take on a matted, slimy appearance. If you believe your compost pile needs more air, turn it, and try adding more dry or brown stuff to open up the structure. Turning a compost pile can be labor intensive and hard on the back. Some people use a shovel or pitchfork. There are also compost aerating tools that aim to make the process easier that are either of the "winged" type or "corkscrew" type. 

5. Water. Your pile should be about as damp as a sponge that has been wrung out. Depending on your climate, you can add water directly or rely on the moisture that comes in with "green" items. A lid on the compost bin will help to keep moisture in. If a pile gets too much water in it, it might not get enough air. 

6. Temperature. The temperature of the compost pile is very important and is an indication of the microbial activity of the decomposition process. The simplest way to track the temperature inside the heap is by feeling it with your hand. If it is warm or hot, everything is decomposing as it should, but if it is the same temperature as the surrounding air, the microbial activity has slowed down and you need to add more materials that are high in nitrogen to the bin. 

7. Soil or starter compost. This is not strictly necessary, but a light sprinkling of garden soil or recently finished compost between layers can help to introduce the correct bacteria to start the compost cycle a little more quickly. If you are pulling weeds, the soil left on the roots may be sufficient to serve this purpose. Compost starters are available, but probably not necessary. 

THE PROCESS: 

1. Dig the hole for your compost pit. Your compost hole should be about 1 foot (30 cm) deep. The area of the hole will be determined by the amount of organic matter you want to add. Keep in mind that the compost will be finely chopped and piled to a height of 4 inches (10 cm) in the bottom of the hole when estimating the hole's size.Dig a trench 25cm deep 

2. Chop your composting materials finely. Underground composting proceeds more slowly than above ground setups, and maximizing the surface area of your scraps is key to speeding the process. Kitchen scraps can be ripped apart by hand, chopped with a knife, or even pulverized in a food processor. Yard scraps can be broken down using a lawn mower. Aim for pieces no bigger than 2 or 3 inches (5 - 8 cm) in any dimension.Start with a 4 inch layer of brush, twigs, hay or straw at the bottom of the bin. 

3. Then add a 4 inch layer of brown material 

4. Then a thin layer of finished compost or good garden soil. 

5. Then add a 4 inch layer of green material topped with a thin layer of compost or soil. 

6. Cover your compost with soil. Once you have finished adding your organic scraps to the compost pit, you can backfill it with the soil you removed. Add the soil on top of the compost, filling the pit until it is again level with the surrounding soil. Recover with sod or seed with grass if desired. Moisten each layer by misting it lightly with a garden hose. 

Keep adding materials in alternating layers of greens and browns until the bin is full. Once you have a full bin you can turn the pile every 14 days or so. The more you turn the pile the faster you will have finished compost! Within a few days, the pile should heat up significantly, to about 160° F. 

This is a necessary stage in composting, as the temperature will kill many weed seeds and harmful organisms. If the pile fails to heat, there is insufficient nitrogen or water in the pile, and more should be added. 

The pile will decrease in size after a few weeks if it is composting properly. The pile should be forked over after about a month (2 weeks if the material is shredded), putting the outside materials on the inside and vice versa to make sure everything gets broken down. 

Turn again 5 to 6 weeks later. Composting may be completed in 1 or 2 months if the materials are shredded, kept moist, and turned several times to provide good aeration. It will take longer if the materials are very coarse.

Description Compost is an organic fertilizer that can be made on the farm at very low cost. The most important input is the farmer’s labour. Compost is decomposed organic matter, such as crop residues and/or animal manure. Most of these ingredients can be easily found around the farm. 

Due to soil fertility problems, crop returns often decrease and the crops are more susceptible to pests and diseases because they are in bad condition. In order to increase soil fertility in the short run, nutrients have to be added to the soil. This is often done by applying chemical fertilizers. 

Chemical fertilizers, however, are expensive to purchase and for most small‑scale farmers, this is a problem. Preparation and use of compost can be a solution to that problem. 

To really improve soil fertility in the long term, it is necessary to improve the soil structure and to increase the organic matter content of the soil. 

Compost is a good fertilizer because it contains nutrients as well as organic matter. The role of organic matter is explained in more details below. 

Using compost as the only means to maintain soil fertility is possible, but in that case you need a very large quantity of compost. 

We advise you to apply several practices at the same time in order to maintain the soil fertility in the long term. Some of these methods to improve soil fertility are crop husbandry methods (mulching, green manure, agroforestry and improved fallow) and applying organic manures (compost, liquid manure and animal manure). If animal manure is applied it should have matured for some time, otherwise it might damage the plants.

Composting animal manure makes it a better fertilizer. 1. Fertilizing: the role of organic matter and compost The presence of organic matter in the soil is fundamental in maintaining the soil fertility and decreasing nutrient losses. Compost is an organic fertilizer, it adds organic matter and nutrients to the soil. In order to quickly supply a crop with the required nutrients, a chemical fertilizer may be needed. In contrast to organic fertilizers, chemical fertilizers help the plants immediately. 

Organic manures first have to be broken down into nutrients (by soil-organisms) before they can be utilized by the plants. However, chemical fertilizers are used up by the end of the season, whereas organic matter continues to enhance soil fertility, soil structure and water storage capacity. Moreover, the presence of organic material ensures that the chemical fertilizer is more efficiently utilized by the crop. 

Organic matter retains plant nutrients and thus prevents the fertilizer from being washed away. It is in fact a waste of money to apply chemical fertilizer on a soil that is poor in organic matter, if it is not done in combination with measures to increase the level of organic matter in the soil.

1.1 Organic matter and soil processes Organic matter in the soil consists of fresh organic matter and humus. Fresh organic matter can be (dead) plant material, animal droppings, dead animals etc. The fresh organic matter is transformed into fine organic matter and humus by soil organisms. 

Humus gives the soil a dark color and retains nutrients and water. It cannot easily be decomposed further. 

1.1.1 Properties of fine organic matter (e.g. humus) 

• It improves the soil structure. • It improves the resistance of the soil against the erosive action of rain and wind. 

• It retains water and releases it slowly, so that water is available to the plants (water storage capacity) over a longer period. 

• It retains nutrients and releases them to the plants slowly over a longer period. 

• It contains the main nutrients of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), which become available to the plants after decomposition. The micro-organisms are mainly responsible for further breaking down part of the humus into carbon dioxide, water and nutrients for the plants. 

This process is called mineralization: nutrients are released and can be taken up directly by plant roots. The rate of humus production and mineralization in the soil depends on a number of factors. In a hot climate the micro-organisms are more active and the organic materials will break down more rapidly than in a cold climate. Also the acidity of the soil, the composition of the organic matter, the humidity and the availability of oxygen strongly influence the rate of decomposition.

1.2 Compost The natural decomposition process in the soil can be regulated and speeded up by man. Organic material is collected, and preferably stacked in a heap. In the heap the decomposition process is 3/12 more intensive and the conditions more favorable, because the heap is made up almost entirely of organic matter. The end product is strongly decayed organic matter with humus and nutrients. 

This is known as compost. Compost is used as an organic fertilizer which can be added to the soil. Fertilizing with compost means, apart from fertilizing the plants, also making use of the good properties of organic material as mentioned in the section above. 

Adding compost to sandy soils increases the water retention capacity. This means that water remains longer in the soil and thus remains available to plants for a longer time in periods of drought. All non-toxic, organic materials can be used for making compost. Superfluous and/or waste material are often applied and in this way can be made use of again. Finally, make sure that the materials used for composting could not be better used for other purposes, such as cattle feed. 

2. The composting process As described in the section on organic matter in soil processes, the composting process happens due to the activity of micro-organisms (bacteria) and other larger organisms like worms and insects. 

These need certain conditions to live. These include moisture and air. To make the best possible compost, the micro-organisms must be able to work optimally. This can be achieved if the following four factors are combined to the best advantage: type of organic material, air, moisture, and temperature. 

The acidity (pH) is also considered by some to be an important factor. 

Acidity depends on the air and moisture flow. A compost heap which is properly composed will seldom get too acid. 

The composting process will be optimal when various materials of different decomposition rates are combined, the different materials are well mixed, and the size of the heap varies from 1 m x 1 m to 3 m x 3 m. 

This makes it possible for the temperature to stay constant within the heap. A good composting process passes through three consecutive stages, which are a heating phase (fermentation), a cooling down phase, and a maturation phase. It is not easy to draw the line between these stages. The process takes place very gradually and with the help of continuously changing microorganisms the organic material is converted into compost. 

2.1 Heating phase During the first stage of composting, the compost heap starts to heat up considerably. This effect is known as fermentation and is the result of the breaking down of the complex and tough fibrous material of the organic matter. 

This fermentation process (decomposition) is strongest in the centre of the heap. To get the fermentation going quickly and effectively, a number of factors are important. In the first place the compost heap should be made of all sorts of organic materials. 

Secondly, the right micro‑organisms have to be present. 

Thirdly, it is very important that there is adequate oxygen and water. If these three conditions are met, heat is generated quickly. In the next chapter we explain how to meet these conditions when putting compost making into practice. 

During fermentation the micro-organisms multiply and change at a rapid rate, which adds to the heating up process. In this way, a self-accelerated process is started.

The 4/12 fermentation stage usually begins after four to five days and may take one to two weeks. Maximum fermentation takes place at a temperature of 60 to 70 ˚C in the compost heap. 

If the temperature is too high, the necessary microorganisms may die and decomposition comes to a halt. Due to its temperature, fermentation also has a hygienic effect. In the organic material, many pathogenic germs which are a threat to man, animal and plant, are destroyed. It is often suggested that fermentation kills weed seeds and roots too. 

However, in practice, this is quite disappointing. Many weed seeds are not destroyed in a normal compost heap, because the temperature is not sufficiently high. In some cases, the germinating power of weed seeds has even been known to increase. 

2.1.1 Temperature test 

A simple way to see if the fermentation process has started is to put a stick in the centre of the heap about five days after completing the compost heap or after the final turning over. Leave it there for about five to ten minutes. After taking it out, feel it immediately. It should be considerably warmer (60 to 70 ˚C) than body temperature. If not, then this is an indication that something is wrong, perhaps the material used or aeration is at fault. 

2.2 Cooling down phase The fermentation phase gradually changes into a cooling down phase. Decomposition occurs without much generation of heat and the temperature drops slowly. During this period new types of micro-organisms convert the organic components into humus. 

The heap remains clammy and hot inside and the temperature drops from 50˚C to 30˚C. By regulating the temperature, air and water supply, the process can be accelerated or slowed down. How long this cooling down stage takes, depends on the type of heap, the material, the attention given to it, the climate etc. The cooling down period usually takes a few months, but in unfavorable conditions may require up to a year. 

2.3 Maturation phase In this end phase of decomposition, the temperature drops to soil temperature, depending on the climate, 15 to 25 ˚C. Apart from the micro-organisms mentioned, the large soil fauna are active at this stage too. 

In temperate regions, earthworms in particular, feed on the strongly decomposed organic material, and in this way contribute to decomposition. In the tropical to semiarid regions, termites in particular play an important role, although these can also be very troublesome. 

This phase never really comes to an end, the decomposition process can go on infinitely at a slow rate. The compost is ready for use if it feels crumbly and looks like good brown/black organic soil 

3. The practice of composting 

In this paragraph, important aspects of compost making are explained. Attention must be given to the composition of the organic material and the location of the heap. The measurements and the construction of the heap are described separately. In the next paragraph different specific methods of compost making are given. 

3.1. Organic material In general, any type of organic material of plants and animals can be used. It is essential to mix old and tough materials, , which are difficult to decompose (crop 5/12 residues, small twigs), with young and sappy materials, which are easily decomposable (fruit, vegetable skins, young leaves). This is because different types of organic matter contain different proportions of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N). 

The micro‑organisms which decompose the organic matter need both carbon and nitrogen to function well. In general, young, living material that decomposes fast contains low levels of carbon but high levels of nitrogen. Tough, dead material decomposes slowly and contains large amounts of carbon but low amounts of nitrogen. Too little nitrogen-rich material means the composting process will be slow, too much of it will result in the heap becoming acid and smelly. The ideal ratio of carbon and nitrogen for starting a compost pile is C:N ratio = 25 - 30:1.

Be careful not to use toxic materials. For example, plant parts sprayed with chemical pesticides can have an adverse effect on the decomposition and the quality of the compost. Diseased material with rusts and viruses for example, should be kept to a minimum. 

During fermentation many disease germs are not destroyed, so the disease cycle continues as compost is added to the soil in the form of manure. A shortage of easily decomposable material is often the reason for slow conversion in the compost heap. The heap may even become completely inactive. An indication of this is the fall in temperature during fermentation, after about two days. A compost heap made up of young plant material (easy to decompose) gets going slowly and soon becomes too acid. An acid compost heap begins to rot and smell. 

Decomposition takes place very slowly and the quality of the compost deteriorates. The combination of young leaf litter or manure (easy to decompose) with woody plant parts (difficult to decompose) gives the best compost in the shortest time.

3.2 Micro-organisms The composting process happens due to the activity of micro-organisms and other larger organisms like worms and insects. The first condition for composting is the presence of the composting organisms. Adding these organisms to the heap can be done by mixing ready-made compost with the organic materials. If there is no compost the soil can be added. Collect this soil preferably from a shady and humid place, for example from below trees. Soil that contains moisture, contains micro‑organisms. Soil that has been dried out by the sun, usually does not contain many living organisms anymore. 

3.3 Air The micro-organisms in the heap require oxygen to survive and to do their work converting the organic material. The carbon dioxide which is produced by the micro‑organisms as a result of their activity needs to be blown out by a flow of air. If there is not enough air in the heap, the useful micro-organisms will not survive. Other micro-organisms that do not need oxygen will thrive and decomposition of the organic material will slow down. In order to get enough air in the heap do not put the compost heap right up against a wall. When building up the heap put a layer of rough material (twigs) at the bottom, so air can enter the heap. See also section 4.1 with the subsection on air channels. 

3.4 Moisture The micro-organisms need moisture to live and to spread through the heap. The activity of the organisms will slow down if the heap is too dry. But if the heap becomes too wet, then there will not be enough air and the composting organisms will die. This will cause the heap to ferment rather than compost. Judging the right amount of water requires a little experience. 

3.4.1 The moisture test The moisture level of a compost heap can be tested easily. Put a bundle of straw in the heap. If after five minutes it feels clammy, then the moisture level is good. If still dry after five minutes, the moisture level is too low. A dry heap has to be sprinkled uniformly, using a watering can or a perforated tin. Water alone can be used or a mixture of urine and water 1:4. Urine enhances the growth of the micro-organisms. Water droplets on the straw indicate that the heap is too wet and it should be opened up straight away. The material can be spread out and dried in the sun. It can also be mixed with other dry material. After some time the heap can be made up again. If it has become too wet by rain then it is better to cover it. Repeat the test in both cases after a few days.

4. Site of the compost heap Specific points need to be kept in mind when choosing a good place for a compost heap. 

• Climate 

If weather conditions are mainly dry, the heap must be protected against drying out. A shady place, out of the wind, is ideal. This could be behind a building or behind a row of trees. Moisture in the heap will then evaporate less quickly, yet there will be enough air. A wind-free place also has the advantage that the material is not blown away and the temperature fluctuates less. A water source near the heap is convenient for sprinkling if too dry. Under wet weather conditions the heap will have to be protected against excess water. Choose a protected and well drained place on a higher part of the land. 

A compost heap under a shade tree (mango or cashew, for instance) will usually be well protected against excessive rainfall. Both types of weather conditions are likely to play an important role in determining a suitable place for making a compost heap. 

Putting a simple roof above the place where the compost is made protects the heap against the sun and against the rain. The protection against these climatic influences will improve the composting process. Temperature and moisture level will stay more constant. 

• Transport 

The heap should be situated as close as possible to the source of organic material (for instance, the field or harvesting place). It should also be near the place where the compost is to be used. This saves time and labour in transport or organic material and compost. 

• Space around the heap 

There should be enough space around the heap to enable the compost to be turned over or examined. A space about two to three times that of the heap itself is the most practical. 

• Vermin 

A compost heap should always be made outside and not too close to living accommodation or stables. The heap is likely to attract a number of vermin, such as mice, rats, termites and other insects. These transfer diseases to man and animal and attract more dangerous vermin, such as snakes.

4.1 Size and setting up of the heap Size

The heap has to conform to a certain size; if too broad or too high, aeration is poor. A good basic size is 2 to 2.5 m wide and 1.5 to 2 m in height. The length depends on the quantity of organic material available, but it is better to make a shorter heap quickly than a longer heap slowly. It is strongly advised to start with a heap greater than 1 m3, otherwise the temperature in the heap remains low and decomposition is too slow and incomplete. During the maturation phase the volume of the heap decreases and the heap sags in, as it were. 

• Setting up the heap 

The compost heap can be above ground or underground in a pit or a trench. In section 5 different methods are described. Whichever method is used, the heap of organic material has to be set up in a special way. A useful suggestion is to start the heap by a foundation of coarse plant material such as twigs or sugar cane stalks. The outside air can easily flow in under the heap and any excess water flows away more quickly. If the heap is built up in layers, the individual layers should preferably not be thicker than 10 cm for plant material and 2 cm for manure. Apart from the organic material available, the way the heap is made depends also on the individual experience and results. 

• Covering the heap 

In an area of heavy rain the heap will have to be protected against excess water. Preferably it can be kept dry by putting a simple roof above the heap or even simpler. More precisely this means covering with a layer of leaves, a cloth, jute or plastic etc. If plastic is used then only cover the top, so that the air can penetrate through the sides. Trenches around the heap facilitate the run off of excess rain water. Covering the top with the materials mentioned can also be an advantage in dry areas. It prevents excess evaporation of moisture from the heap and it dries out less quickly. 

• Air channels 

It is good advice to put air channels into the heap. This can be done effectively by putting stakes or bundles of twigs, straw or other firm material upright in the heap when composing it. The bundles can remain inside, because they let in enough air, but stakes have to be removed as soon as the heap has been completed. These air channels should be about 12 cm in diameter and about 1 m apart. After four to five days the channels have to be closed up. If there is too much ventilation the fermentation process can turn into a detrimental combustion process.

5. Methods to make compost 

There are many ways of making compost. In this section different methods are given. We have gratefully made use of materials of HDRA and KIOF in order to be able to present many different methods of compost making in this Chapter. Taking into account the factors mentioned before, such as availability of organic materials and weather conditions, a choice can be made from these methods. In the long run everyone must work out a method to suit oneself. 

We advise you to experiment and find the method that suits best to your situation. Of course you can always contact Agromisa, HDRA or KIOF ask for specific information. 

5.1 Indore method 

The Indore method is often used for composting in layers. 8/12 

• Building the heap The basis of the heap should consist of twigs and cane shoots. The following four successive layers are piled on top of this: 

1. a layer of about 10 cm tough organic material which is difficult to decompose; 

2. a layer of about 10 cm fresh organic material which decomposes easily; 

3. a layer of 2 cm animal manure, compost or slurry from a biogas tank; and 

4. a thin layer of soil. The soil should be collected come from the top layer (top 10 cm) of clean(moist) soil (e.g. from under trees). 

This ensures that the right micro‑organisms are brought into the heap. This sequence of layers is repeated until the heap has reached a final height of 1.5 to 2 m. In this way the heap is composed of many layers. Building the heap should be done quickly, preferably within a week. 

• Turning over 

During decomposition the heap has to be turned over regularly, in order that it remains well aerated and all the material is converted into compost. The first turning over of the heap should be done after two to three weeks. The heap is broken down and built up again next to the old heap. The layers are mixed and the heap is, as it were, turned upside down and inside out. 

Again, a foundation of coarse plant material is made first. Then the drier and outer, less decomposed part of the old heap is placed in the central part of the new heap. The drier material will have to be watered before the heap can be built up further. This core is covered with the rest of the material. The original layered structure is lost. 

The second turning over takes place after three weeks and it may even be necessary to turn the heap over again for a third time. Repeat the moisture test and the temperature test a few days after each turning over operation. 

• Time for decomposition 

Decomposition is complete if the plant material has changed into an unrecognizable crumbly, dark mass. Twigs and thick stems do not decompose completely and can still be seen. Under favorable conditions, the decomposition process in the Indore method takes three months, but under adverse conditions it may take longer than six months. Some substances, such as human urine and wood ash promote the growth of the micro-organisms.

A small amount of these in the heap is sufficient to accelerate their growth. If the process has to be speeded up spread some urine or wood ash over the thin layers of soil, but only in small quantities; too much ash kills the micro‑organisms. Urine, diluted with water 1:4 is sprinkled over the heap, using a watering can. The Indore method usually gives good results. 

5.1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of Indore method 

Advantages 

• The process can be kept under control and runs smoothly, because the heap is turned regularly. 

• Compost is produced in a short time. 

Disadvantages 

• It requires a lot of water. 

• It is very labour intensive.